Zgryźliwość kojarzy mi się z radością, która źle skończyła.
Conclusions
Norbert Müller
This book covers a wide range of well-known European cities extending from
Almería in the south-west to St. Petersburg in the north-east and from Sofia in the
south-east to London in the north-west with most cities being concentrated in central
Europe, see Fig.
1
. There are five major gaps in the geographical representation,
Scandinavia, eastern Europe (Moscow to the Urals), Balkan Peninsula, southern
Europe and the Iberian Peninsula (including France) – Almería being the single
exception to the last two. In terms of population size, London was the world’s first
mega-city (more than one million people living in it in the nineteenth century), and
now Moscow is the largest city in Europe.
While all cities are at least several hundred or even thousand of years old, there
is one exception – the newly constructed city of Milton Keynes, which was devel-
oped on intensively managed agricultural land starting at the very beginning of the
1970s. For this reason, Milton Keynes is in a unique position in relation to studying
the dynamics of urban vegetation and its flora. Because of its recent origin, it is not
comparable with the other cities, whose plants and habitats have been influenced
by people of many generations.
The Beginning of Urban Development: The Natural
Environment of the Cities
The majority of cities described are located in the temperate zone where summer
broad-leaved forests predominate. At the extremes are St. Petersburg, which is
within the boreal zone of evergreen coniferous forests and Almería, which is in the
meridional zone of evergreen broad-leaved forests. London, Milton Keynes,
Norbert Müller (
*
)
Department of Landscape Management and Restoration Ecology,
University of Applied Sciences Erfurt, Leipziger Str. 77, 99085 Erfurt, Germany
e-mail: n.mueller@fh-erfurt.de
J.G. Kelcey and N. Müller (eds.),
Plants and Habitats of European Cities
,
DOI 10.1007/978-0-387-89684-7_17, © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011
579
580
N. Müller
Fig. 1
Location of the cities
Brussels and Maastricht are influenced by an oceanic climate usually moist air and
with less difference in the range of summer and winter temperatures and precipita-
tion. The majority of the cities have a sub-oceanic to sub-continental climate.
Moscow and Bucharest have the most distinctive continental climate usually drier
and with substantial differences between summer and winter temperatures and
precipitation. Most cities are situated in lowland areas, namely, Berlin, Brussels,
Bucharest, London, Maastricht, Milton Keynes and Pozna ´. Some areas are adja-
cent to the sea, namely, Almería and St. Petersburg. Bratislava, Moscow, Vienna
and Warsaw occur at higher altitudes, while Augsburg, Sofia and Zurich occur
within montane regions. In summary, the altitude of the cities described ranges
from sea level (Almería) to 870 m above sea level (Zurich).
Conclusions
581
The Evolution of Cities in Europe: The History
of a Long- Lasting Human Impact on the Environment
Most of the areas occupied by the present cities were settled by people in Neolithic
times, when Europe was colonised by agriculturalists. From the point of view of
landscape history, it is important to recognise that the re-colonisation of Europe by
trees after the last Ice Age was not completed before human influence began to
cause local disturbances. An important time for many central European cities was
the invasion of the Romans who established many fortifications and towns as the
Empire expanded, for example, Augsburg 15 BC, Vienna 10 BC, Bratislava and
Maastricht first century AD, Bucharest second century AD, Brussels sixth century
AD and London 43 AD. The introduction of new food plants and new agricultural
methods can be regarded as one of the main drivers for the further population
growth and the development of cities. Augsburg (
Augusta vindelicorum
) and
London (
Londinium
) acquired their names during Roman times.
In the Middle Ages (500–1500), when the Roman influence in central Europe
was replaced by Christian Feudalism, many cities experienced their first peak of
prosperity, many being cited by their present name, Bratislava (903), Zurich (929),
Almería (955), Brussels (979), Moscow (1147), Vienna (1150), Sofia (1194),
Berlin (1200), Pozna ´ (1253) and Bucharest (1368). The exceptions are St.
Petersburg (founded in 1703) and Milton Keynes (founded in 1971). Most cities
underwent further rapid development in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries during the industrialisation of Europe. An exception was the population
growth of London which had 850,000 inhabitants in 1800 and 3.5 million in 1900
– more than 400% growth in 100 years. Today, with 8.8 million inhabitants,
Moscow is the largest city in Europe, followed (in relation to the cities in this
book) by St. Petersburg, London and Berlin (Fig.
2
).
10
1800
9
1600
8
1400
7
1200
6
1000
5
800
4
600
3
400
2
200
1
0
0
Fig. 2
Population size (
a
) and area (
b
) of the cities
582
N. Müller
Cities: A New Environment
The establishment and growth of cities result in major environmental changes of which
probably the best known and the most extensively and intensively researched are air and
water pollution. For example, air pollution in London has been a recurrent problem
since the end of the Medieval period when it started to rely on energy from the burning
of coal imported from Newcastle and other places. London smog (a combination of
smoke and fog), which had severe consequences for the health of its inhabitants and
plant life, is legendary. In 1937, emissions from chimneys produced 125 tons of solids
per km
2
per year, of which 17 tonnes were sulphates and 2 tonnes tar (Crawley, in this
book). Climate change in cities was described for the first time in London in the early
nineteenth century and the impact of air pollution during the same period. The adverse
effect of air pollution in all large European cities was observed in the nineteenth century
as the result of the decline and extinction of lichenised fungi. The use of lichenised fungi
in the determination of air quality may be one of the longest traditions of using plants
as indicators for environmental change. Today in several cities, for example, Bratislava
and London, some lichen species have returned to the urban core following the
improvement of air quality, especially the reduction of sulphur dioxide. In some cities,
including Bucharest, Pozna ´ and Sofia, air pollution is still a serious problem.
The continuous influence of human activities in cities since ancient times has
altered the structure and chemistry of natural soils. Little is known about the evolu-
tion of urban soils, which were systematically described in Berlin for the first time
in the 1980s. Because similar settlement types are causing similar changes to the
natural environment, urban land-use types have been used as ecological units in
cities since the 1980s. The distinctiveness of some urban habitats such as waste
ground, railway areas and different settlement types were investigated systemati-
cally for the first time in the “Biotope mapping of Berlin” and subsequently in
many German and other cities of central Europe.
Cities as “Hot Spots” of Plant Diversity
A comparison of the flora of the cities considered in this book indicates that in
general terms large cities are characterised by a higher species-richness in terms of
vascular plants, than the surrounding rural areas and the species-richness is increas-
ing with the population size of the city (see Fig.
3
and Annex
1
). This is the result
of the wide variety of habitats present and the greater variation in vertical and hori-
zontal structure, the considerable variation in the types and intensities of land use,
the range of materials used, the huge array of micro-habitats, and the most varied
habitat mosaic configurations.
A further factor influencing the plant species-richness is the number of neo-
phytes that occur in cities (Fig.
4
). In many cases, the decline in the number of
native species caused by urban development is compensated for by the introduction
and naturalisation of neophytes.
Conclusions
583
1,800
Vienna
1,600
Bratislava
London
Berlin
1,400
St. Petersburg
Moscow
Zurich
1,200
Augsburg
Warsaw
1,000
Poznan
Sofia
800
Brussels
Bucharest
Maastricht
600
400
200
Almería (no data)
0
Milton Keynes
(no data)
0
2
4
6
8
10
population size (in millions)
Fig. 3
Species-richness of vascular plants and population size
1,800
91%
1,600
91%
70%
81%
1,400
81%
68%
77%
1,200
90%
91%
1,000
Idiochorophytes
& archaeophytes
Neophytes
88%
91%
800
80%
83%
600
400
200
no
det.
data
no
data
no
data
10%
9%
20%
9%
19%
30%
17%
32%
12%
19%
9%
9%
23%
0
Fig. 4
Species-richness of vascular plants divided into idiochorophytes, archaeophytes and
neophytes
zanotowane.pl doc.pisz.pl pdf.pisz.pl hannaeva.xlx.pl
Norbert Müller
This book covers a wide range of well-known European cities extending from
Almería in the south-west to St. Petersburg in the north-east and from Sofia in the
south-east to London in the north-west with most cities being concentrated in central
Europe, see Fig.
1
. There are five major gaps in the geographical representation,
Scandinavia, eastern Europe (Moscow to the Urals), Balkan Peninsula, southern
Europe and the Iberian Peninsula (including France) – Almería being the single
exception to the last two. In terms of population size, London was the world’s first
mega-city (more than one million people living in it in the nineteenth century), and
now Moscow is the largest city in Europe.
While all cities are at least several hundred or even thousand of years old, there
is one exception – the newly constructed city of Milton Keynes, which was devel-
oped on intensively managed agricultural land starting at the very beginning of the
1970s. For this reason, Milton Keynes is in a unique position in relation to studying
the dynamics of urban vegetation and its flora. Because of its recent origin, it is not
comparable with the other cities, whose plants and habitats have been influenced
by people of many generations.
The Beginning of Urban Development: The Natural
Environment of the Cities
The majority of cities described are located in the temperate zone where summer
broad-leaved forests predominate. At the extremes are St. Petersburg, which is
within the boreal zone of evergreen coniferous forests and Almería, which is in the
meridional zone of evergreen broad-leaved forests. London, Milton Keynes,
Norbert Müller (
*
)
Department of Landscape Management and Restoration Ecology,
University of Applied Sciences Erfurt, Leipziger Str. 77, 99085 Erfurt, Germany
e-mail: n.mueller@fh-erfurt.de
J.G. Kelcey and N. Müller (eds.),
Plants and Habitats of European Cities
,
DOI 10.1007/978-0-387-89684-7_17, © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011
579
580
N. Müller
Fig. 1
Location of the cities
Brussels and Maastricht are influenced by an oceanic climate usually moist air and
with less difference in the range of summer and winter temperatures and precipita-
tion. The majority of the cities have a sub-oceanic to sub-continental climate.
Moscow and Bucharest have the most distinctive continental climate usually drier
and with substantial differences between summer and winter temperatures and
precipitation. Most cities are situated in lowland areas, namely, Berlin, Brussels,
Bucharest, London, Maastricht, Milton Keynes and Pozna ´. Some areas are adja-
cent to the sea, namely, Almería and St. Petersburg. Bratislava, Moscow, Vienna
and Warsaw occur at higher altitudes, while Augsburg, Sofia and Zurich occur
within montane regions. In summary, the altitude of the cities described ranges
from sea level (Almería) to 870 m above sea level (Zurich).
Conclusions
581
The Evolution of Cities in Europe: The History
of a Long- Lasting Human Impact on the Environment
Most of the areas occupied by the present cities were settled by people in Neolithic
times, when Europe was colonised by agriculturalists. From the point of view of
landscape history, it is important to recognise that the re-colonisation of Europe by
trees after the last Ice Age was not completed before human influence began to
cause local disturbances. An important time for many central European cities was
the invasion of the Romans who established many fortifications and towns as the
Empire expanded, for example, Augsburg 15 BC, Vienna 10 BC, Bratislava and
Maastricht first century AD, Bucharest second century AD, Brussels sixth century
AD and London 43 AD. The introduction of new food plants and new agricultural
methods can be regarded as one of the main drivers for the further population
growth and the development of cities. Augsburg (
Augusta vindelicorum
) and
London (
Londinium
) acquired their names during Roman times.
In the Middle Ages (500–1500), when the Roman influence in central Europe
was replaced by Christian Feudalism, many cities experienced their first peak of
prosperity, many being cited by their present name, Bratislava (903), Zurich (929),
Almería (955), Brussels (979), Moscow (1147), Vienna (1150), Sofia (1194),
Berlin (1200), Pozna ´ (1253) and Bucharest (1368). The exceptions are St.
Petersburg (founded in 1703) and Milton Keynes (founded in 1971). Most cities
underwent further rapid development in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries during the industrialisation of Europe. An exception was the population
growth of London which had 850,000 inhabitants in 1800 and 3.5 million in 1900
– more than 400% growth in 100 years. Today, with 8.8 million inhabitants,
Moscow is the largest city in Europe, followed (in relation to the cities in this
book) by St. Petersburg, London and Berlin (Fig.
2
).
10
1800
9
1600
8
1400
7
1200
6
1000
5
800
4
600
3
400
2
200
1
0
0
Fig. 2
Population size (
a
) and area (
b
) of the cities
582
N. Müller
Cities: A New Environment
The establishment and growth of cities result in major environmental changes of which
probably the best known and the most extensively and intensively researched are air and
water pollution. For example, air pollution in London has been a recurrent problem
since the end of the Medieval period when it started to rely on energy from the burning
of coal imported from Newcastle and other places. London smog (a combination of
smoke and fog), which had severe consequences for the health of its inhabitants and
plant life, is legendary. In 1937, emissions from chimneys produced 125 tons of solids
per km
2
per year, of which 17 tonnes were sulphates and 2 tonnes tar (Crawley, in this
book). Climate change in cities was described for the first time in London in the early
nineteenth century and the impact of air pollution during the same period. The adverse
effect of air pollution in all large European cities was observed in the nineteenth century
as the result of the decline and extinction of lichenised fungi. The use of lichenised fungi
in the determination of air quality may be one of the longest traditions of using plants
as indicators for environmental change. Today in several cities, for example, Bratislava
and London, some lichen species have returned to the urban core following the
improvement of air quality, especially the reduction of sulphur dioxide. In some cities,
including Bucharest, Pozna ´ and Sofia, air pollution is still a serious problem.
The continuous influence of human activities in cities since ancient times has
altered the structure and chemistry of natural soils. Little is known about the evolu-
tion of urban soils, which were systematically described in Berlin for the first time
in the 1980s. Because similar settlement types are causing similar changes to the
natural environment, urban land-use types have been used as ecological units in
cities since the 1980s. The distinctiveness of some urban habitats such as waste
ground, railway areas and different settlement types were investigated systemati-
cally for the first time in the “Biotope mapping of Berlin” and subsequently in
many German and other cities of central Europe.
Cities as “Hot Spots” of Plant Diversity
A comparison of the flora of the cities considered in this book indicates that in
general terms large cities are characterised by a higher species-richness in terms of
vascular plants, than the surrounding rural areas and the species-richness is increas-
ing with the population size of the city (see Fig.
3
and Annex
1
). This is the result
of the wide variety of habitats present and the greater variation in vertical and hori-
zontal structure, the considerable variation in the types and intensities of land use,
the range of materials used, the huge array of micro-habitats, and the most varied
habitat mosaic configurations.
A further factor influencing the plant species-richness is the number of neo-
phytes that occur in cities (Fig.
4
). In many cases, the decline in the number of
native species caused by urban development is compensated for by the introduction
and naturalisation of neophytes.
Conclusions
583
1,800
Vienna
1,600
Bratislava
London
Berlin
1,400
St. Petersburg
Moscow
Zurich
1,200
Augsburg
Warsaw
1,000
Poznan
Sofia
800
Brussels
Bucharest
Maastricht
600
400
200
Almería (no data)
0
Milton Keynes
(no data)
0
2
4
6
8
10
population size (in millions)
Fig. 3
Species-richness of vascular plants and population size
1,800
91%
1,600
91%
70%
81%
1,400
81%
68%
77%
1,200
90%
91%
1,000
Idiochorophytes
& archaeophytes
Neophytes
88%
91%
800
80%
83%
600
400
200
no
det.
data
no
data
no
data
10%
9%
20%
9%
19%
30%
17%
32%
12%
19%
9%
9%
23%
0
Fig. 4
Species-richness of vascular plants divided into idiochorophytes, archaeophytes and
neophytes