Zgryźliwość kojarzy mi się z radością, która źle skończyła.
Warsaw
Barbara Sudnik-Wójcikowska and Halina Galera
Fig. 1
The Old Town: the Castle Square, St. John’s Cathedral, remains of the city wall (
left side
)
and the Royal Castle (
right side
) (Photo I. I. Moysiyenko)
Abstract
As in the case of other metropolitan areas, the size and the structure of
land use in Warsaw have changed substantially both spatially and temporally. Areas
of natural and semi-natural habitats and agricultural land have declined, especially in
Barbara Sudnik-Wójcikowska (
*
) and Halina Galera
Department of Plant Ecology and Environmental Conservation, University of Warsaw,
Al. Ujazdowskie 4, 00-478, Warsaw, Poland
e-mail: barbara.sudnik@uw.edu.pl; h.galera@uw.edu.pl
499
J.G. Kelcey and N. Müller (eds.),
Plants and Habitats of European Cities
,
DOI 10.1007/978-0-387-89684-7_15, © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011
500
B. Sudnik-Wójcikowska and H. Galera
the peripheral parts of the city. At the same time, new habitats have appeared, such
as industrial areas, tramlines and railways. After 1945 a considerable part of the cen-
tral area of the city was occupied by rubble that was initially devoid of vegetation but
which was soon to be colonised by many plant species. The area of rubble decreased
as the city was re-constructed. As a result of spatial planning policies gradual
changes occurred in the structure of the spontaneous and cultivated flora. Future
trends in the flora of the city can be predicted based on the observations made so far.
The establishment of protected areas within the city has only limited success in pre-
venting the disappearance of native species. The conversion of agricultural land to
urban uses has led to the elimination of some native weed species and archaeophytes
(especially segetal species). It appears, therefore, that the importance of alien species
in the flora of Warsaw will continue to increase as will the number, frequency and
abundance of thermophilous and xerothermic species with short life cycles.
Natural Environment
Location
Warsaw, which is the capital of Poland, lies between coordinates 52°05′48″ to
52°22′11″ north and 020°51′04″ to 021°16′26″ east, in the central part of Warsaw
Basin on the River Vistula at elevation 77–116 m a.s.l. The city is located in the
sub-province “Central Poland Lowland” and in the macro-region Central Mazovian
Lowland. The River Vistula is a characteristic feature of the city dividing it into two
environmentally and historically different parts located on opposite banks: Warsaw
on the left bank of the Vistula – and – Praga on the right bank.
Geomorphology
There are three distinctive units in the relief of Warsaw: the valley of the Vistula,
Warszawska Plain and a small part of the Wołomińska Plain (Fig.
2
).
The Vistula valley near Warsaw was created by fluvial processes that occurred
during the Quaternary period, in the final stages of the last glaciation and the
Holocene (Encyklopedia Warszawy
1994
; Pawlak and Teisseyre-Sierpińska
2006
).
In the river valley, the following terraces can be distinguished:
1. The upper terrace is covered by sand dunes (called Kampinoski Terrace on the
left bank and Otwocki Terrace on the right bank). The altitude of the terraces is
7–10 m higher than the mean river level.
2. The lower terrace (Praski Terrace) on both banks of the River Vistula; it has a
uniform topography and an elevation 4–7 m higher than the mean river level.
3. The topography of the loodplain, which is 0.5–3 m higher than the mean river
level, is lat. The recent loodplain terrace is limited by lood protective bunds.
4. The river channel, which has changed its alignment during historical times (Fig.
2
).
Warsaw
501
Fig. 2
Geomorphology and hydrographical layout of Warsaw: (
a
) in historical times (natural
surface waters and changes of the position of river channel); (
b
) in the twenty-first century
502
B. Sudnik-Wójcikowska and H. Galera
Warszawska Plain is a glacial plateau whose edge forms the Warsaw Escarpment
with elevations of 10–25 m and steep slopes with inclinations up to 60°. Favourable
defence features of the escarpment have been used by the first strongholds, which
were built in the thirteenth century, and later by the medieval walls of the city.
Geology
Warsaw is located in the central part of a vast Cretaceous basin. Quaternary deposits
form a glacial plateau, which comprises disturbed Boulder Clay, fluvio-glacial sands,
interglacial gravel, stagnant lake clay and peri-glacial silt. Older terraces in the river
valley are formed of sand shaped by aeolian processes. Holocene deposits are mainly
soils of fluvial origin, sands and peat with organogenic soils (formed in poorly
drained terrain depressions). The youngest deposits are of anthropogenic origin.
Soils
Two soil types can be distinguished according to their morphological properties and
depending on the level of human influence in urban areas: natural soils (with pre-
served horizons) and anthropogenic soils. The matrix rocks, on which the soils devel-
oped, can only be classified properly in areas of agricultural land and forests. The
soils developed from sands usually represent the genetic type of podzolic soils and
podzols. The soils on the highest terraces (with dunes) have the lowest fertility. Boggy
soils have developed in places with a high watertable level; however; as the result of
land reclamation practices they have been converted to black earths and marshy soils.
Soils developed from boulder clays dominate the genetic soil types; they are comple-
mented by brown and black earths, which are rich in nutrients. Soils developed from
alluvial sediments are usually found in medium fens. In the Vistula valley, outside the
flood terrace, a significant part of the fens are now similar to brown soils. In wet
places of glacial plateaux and river terraces, soils of organic origin have developed,
including boggy soils, peat soils and boggy peat soils, as well as silty-peat soils.
Surface Waters
The 31.6 km of the River Vistula is the main hydrographical feature within the city.
The mean flow and water depth observed during the period 1921–2000 were
568 m
−3
s
−1
and 240 cm, respectively. The width of the channel in the southern part of
the city is about 1,000 m and the regulated downtown reach is about 350 m wide.
The major tributary of the River Vistula is Wilanówka, which has a total length of
16.5 km (9 km within the city area). It rises in the south of the city and flows through
old oxbows located on the left bank of the Vistula floodplain. Other watercourses that
Warsaw
503
drain the Warszawska Plain (for example, Bielański stream) have been partly culverted
(Fig.
2
). In the south of the city, a relatively well-preserved natural river network and
oxbow lakes occur on the floodplain terraces on both sides of the river. There is also a
dense river network in the north-east part of the city. Throughout the city, there are a
considerable number of small water bodies originating from the man-made excavation
pits and the nineteenth century fortification moats.
Climate
Because of its geographical position, the weather in Warsaw is changeable. The cli-
mate is characteristic of central Poland and belongs to the moderate temperate climatic
zone with transitional features between maritime (Atlantic) and continental condi-
tions. It shows considerable variability with a predominant western circulation bring-
ing polar-maritime air masses from the Atlantic Ocean, which produces rainy and cold
weather in summer and mild weather in winter. The advection of continental air
masses from Asia and eastern Europe brings sunny and dry weather in summer and
frosty weather in winter. A sudden drop in temperature associated with the advection
of arctic air masses (often observed in April and May) occur as may heat waves caused
by inflow of tropical air masses from the south in summer (Gutry-Korycka
2005
).
The average annual total solar radiation between 1961 and 2000 amounted to
3,538 MJ m
−2
. The coldest month of the year is January with an average air tempera-
ture −3°C, while the warmest is July when the temperature exceeds 18°C. The aver-
age annual temperature is roughly 8°C. Extreme temperatures recorded in Warsaw
are 36.8°C (August 22, 1943) and −32.6°C (February 10, 1929). Owing to the
heat-island effect, there is a change in the length of the thermal seasons of the year
(winters shorter by up to 2 weeks) and the growing season is longer by a few days.
Between 1951 and 2000, the average annual precipitation ranged from 510 to
570 mm. Most of the precipitation took place in June and July with the lowest
amounts occurring in February and March. Snow cover lasts about 70 days and is
about 5 cm thick. The pattern of urban structures and the orientation of the River
Vistula valley are also important factors that influence the local climate of the city.
Historical Development of the City
Natural Factors Determining the Rise of the City
In geographical terms, Warsaw lies almost in the centre of Poland’s historical
territory; its location determined the city’s political role and the decision to estab-
lish the capital there. It is situated at the intersection of trade routes running from
the east to west and south to north of Europe, thus forming an important com-
munication crossroads. The city’s location was not accidental but arose as a result
of the natural conditions prevailing in the region. The River Vistula, as well as the
zanotowane.pl doc.pisz.pl pdf.pisz.pl hannaeva.xlx.pl
Barbara Sudnik-Wójcikowska and Halina Galera
Fig. 1
The Old Town: the Castle Square, St. John’s Cathedral, remains of the city wall (
left side
)
and the Royal Castle (
right side
) (Photo I. I. Moysiyenko)
Abstract
As in the case of other metropolitan areas, the size and the structure of
land use in Warsaw have changed substantially both spatially and temporally. Areas
of natural and semi-natural habitats and agricultural land have declined, especially in
Barbara Sudnik-Wójcikowska (
*
) and Halina Galera
Department of Plant Ecology and Environmental Conservation, University of Warsaw,
Al. Ujazdowskie 4, 00-478, Warsaw, Poland
e-mail: barbara.sudnik@uw.edu.pl; h.galera@uw.edu.pl
499
J.G. Kelcey and N. Müller (eds.),
Plants and Habitats of European Cities
,
DOI 10.1007/978-0-387-89684-7_15, © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011
500
B. Sudnik-Wójcikowska and H. Galera
the peripheral parts of the city. At the same time, new habitats have appeared, such
as industrial areas, tramlines and railways. After 1945 a considerable part of the cen-
tral area of the city was occupied by rubble that was initially devoid of vegetation but
which was soon to be colonised by many plant species. The area of rubble decreased
as the city was re-constructed. As a result of spatial planning policies gradual
changes occurred in the structure of the spontaneous and cultivated flora. Future
trends in the flora of the city can be predicted based on the observations made so far.
The establishment of protected areas within the city has only limited success in pre-
venting the disappearance of native species. The conversion of agricultural land to
urban uses has led to the elimination of some native weed species and archaeophytes
(especially segetal species). It appears, therefore, that the importance of alien species
in the flora of Warsaw will continue to increase as will the number, frequency and
abundance of thermophilous and xerothermic species with short life cycles.
Natural Environment
Location
Warsaw, which is the capital of Poland, lies between coordinates 52°05′48″ to
52°22′11″ north and 020°51′04″ to 021°16′26″ east, in the central part of Warsaw
Basin on the River Vistula at elevation 77–116 m a.s.l. The city is located in the
sub-province “Central Poland Lowland” and in the macro-region Central Mazovian
Lowland. The River Vistula is a characteristic feature of the city dividing it into two
environmentally and historically different parts located on opposite banks: Warsaw
on the left bank of the Vistula – and – Praga on the right bank.
Geomorphology
There are three distinctive units in the relief of Warsaw: the valley of the Vistula,
Warszawska Plain and a small part of the Wołomińska Plain (Fig.
2
).
The Vistula valley near Warsaw was created by fluvial processes that occurred
during the Quaternary period, in the final stages of the last glaciation and the
Holocene (Encyklopedia Warszawy
1994
; Pawlak and Teisseyre-Sierpińska
2006
).
In the river valley, the following terraces can be distinguished:
1. The upper terrace is covered by sand dunes (called Kampinoski Terrace on the
left bank and Otwocki Terrace on the right bank). The altitude of the terraces is
7–10 m higher than the mean river level.
2. The lower terrace (Praski Terrace) on both banks of the River Vistula; it has a
uniform topography and an elevation 4–7 m higher than the mean river level.
3. The topography of the loodplain, which is 0.5–3 m higher than the mean river
level, is lat. The recent loodplain terrace is limited by lood protective bunds.
4. The river channel, which has changed its alignment during historical times (Fig.
2
).
Warsaw
501
Fig. 2
Geomorphology and hydrographical layout of Warsaw: (
a
) in historical times (natural
surface waters and changes of the position of river channel); (
b
) in the twenty-first century
502
B. Sudnik-Wójcikowska and H. Galera
Warszawska Plain is a glacial plateau whose edge forms the Warsaw Escarpment
with elevations of 10–25 m and steep slopes with inclinations up to 60°. Favourable
defence features of the escarpment have been used by the first strongholds, which
were built in the thirteenth century, and later by the medieval walls of the city.
Geology
Warsaw is located in the central part of a vast Cretaceous basin. Quaternary deposits
form a glacial plateau, which comprises disturbed Boulder Clay, fluvio-glacial sands,
interglacial gravel, stagnant lake clay and peri-glacial silt. Older terraces in the river
valley are formed of sand shaped by aeolian processes. Holocene deposits are mainly
soils of fluvial origin, sands and peat with organogenic soils (formed in poorly
drained terrain depressions). The youngest deposits are of anthropogenic origin.
Soils
Two soil types can be distinguished according to their morphological properties and
depending on the level of human influence in urban areas: natural soils (with pre-
served horizons) and anthropogenic soils. The matrix rocks, on which the soils devel-
oped, can only be classified properly in areas of agricultural land and forests. The
soils developed from sands usually represent the genetic type of podzolic soils and
podzols. The soils on the highest terraces (with dunes) have the lowest fertility. Boggy
soils have developed in places with a high watertable level; however; as the result of
land reclamation practices they have been converted to black earths and marshy soils.
Soils developed from boulder clays dominate the genetic soil types; they are comple-
mented by brown and black earths, which are rich in nutrients. Soils developed from
alluvial sediments are usually found in medium fens. In the Vistula valley, outside the
flood terrace, a significant part of the fens are now similar to brown soils. In wet
places of glacial plateaux and river terraces, soils of organic origin have developed,
including boggy soils, peat soils and boggy peat soils, as well as silty-peat soils.
Surface Waters
The 31.6 km of the River Vistula is the main hydrographical feature within the city.
The mean flow and water depth observed during the period 1921–2000 were
568 m
−3
s
−1
and 240 cm, respectively. The width of the channel in the southern part of
the city is about 1,000 m and the regulated downtown reach is about 350 m wide.
The major tributary of the River Vistula is Wilanówka, which has a total length of
16.5 km (9 km within the city area). It rises in the south of the city and flows through
old oxbows located on the left bank of the Vistula floodplain. Other watercourses that
Warsaw
503
drain the Warszawska Plain (for example, Bielański stream) have been partly culverted
(Fig.
2
). In the south of the city, a relatively well-preserved natural river network and
oxbow lakes occur on the floodplain terraces on both sides of the river. There is also a
dense river network in the north-east part of the city. Throughout the city, there are a
considerable number of small water bodies originating from the man-made excavation
pits and the nineteenth century fortification moats.
Climate
Because of its geographical position, the weather in Warsaw is changeable. The cli-
mate is characteristic of central Poland and belongs to the moderate temperate climatic
zone with transitional features between maritime (Atlantic) and continental condi-
tions. It shows considerable variability with a predominant western circulation bring-
ing polar-maritime air masses from the Atlantic Ocean, which produces rainy and cold
weather in summer and mild weather in winter. The advection of continental air
masses from Asia and eastern Europe brings sunny and dry weather in summer and
frosty weather in winter. A sudden drop in temperature associated with the advection
of arctic air masses (often observed in April and May) occur as may heat waves caused
by inflow of tropical air masses from the south in summer (Gutry-Korycka
2005
).
The average annual total solar radiation between 1961 and 2000 amounted to
3,538 MJ m
−2
. The coldest month of the year is January with an average air tempera-
ture −3°C, while the warmest is July when the temperature exceeds 18°C. The aver-
age annual temperature is roughly 8°C. Extreme temperatures recorded in Warsaw
are 36.8°C (August 22, 1943) and −32.6°C (February 10, 1929). Owing to the
heat-island effect, there is a change in the length of the thermal seasons of the year
(winters shorter by up to 2 weeks) and the growing season is longer by a few days.
Between 1951 and 2000, the average annual precipitation ranged from 510 to
570 mm. Most of the precipitation took place in June and July with the lowest
amounts occurring in February and March. Snow cover lasts about 70 days and is
about 5 cm thick. The pattern of urban structures and the orientation of the River
Vistula valley are also important factors that influence the local climate of the city.
Historical Development of the City
Natural Factors Determining the Rise of the City
In geographical terms, Warsaw lies almost in the centre of Poland’s historical
territory; its location determined the city’s political role and the decision to estab-
lish the capital there. It is situated at the intersection of trade routes running from
the east to west and south to north of Europe, thus forming an important com-
munication crossroads. The city’s location was not accidental but arose as a result
of the natural conditions prevailing in the region. The River Vistula, as well as the